Type Casting in Java

when you assign a value of one primitive data type to another type.

Two types of casting in Java:

   - Widening Casting (automatically) - converting a smaller type to a larger type size
         byte -> short -> char -> int -> long -> float -> double

   - Narrowing Casting (manually) - converting a larger type to a smaller size type
         double -> float -> long -> int -> char -> short -> byte

Casting, specifically for Division

Integer and integer resulting in integer
If you want it to become a decimal, make it into a double
Type promotion (with an integer and a double value) makes it more complicated, resulting in the decimal

//example
public class Variables {
    public static void main (String[] args) {    

    }
}
System.out.println(10.0/15);

0.6666666666666666

public class Variables
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
   {
   }
}

int x=10;
int y=15;
System.out.println(1 / 3);
System.out.println(1.0 / 3);
System.out.println(1 / 3.0);
System.out.println((double) x / y);
//type promote; produces decimal answer

0
0.3333333333333333
0.3333333333333333
0.6666666666666666

//modulus
public class Variables
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
   {
   }}

System.out.println(15%10);

5

Casting, specifically for Truncating or Rounding

Truncation vs. Rounding

Rounding a number in the range [2.5, 3.5) returns the number 3
Truncating a number in the range [3.0, 4.0) returns the number 3
Where a square bracket '[' denotes inclusion in the range, and a parenthesis '(' denotes non-inclusion in the range -- ie. [3.0, 4.0) is the range of all numbers between 3 and 4, including 3 but not including 4.
truncation; chops off decimal portion

//truncation
public class truncation
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
{}}
//example
int a, b, c;
double d, e;

//declare variables
a = 5;
b = -13;
d = 2.8;

c = a + (int)d; //typecasting
//truncation, cut off decimal
//d became 2 instead of 2.8, so 2 + 5 = 7

System.out.println("c is: " + c);

c is: 7

//rounding
public class rounding
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
{}}

double number = 2.8;
System.out.println( "before rounding: " + number ); 

number = Math.round(number);
System.out.println( "after rounding: " + number ); 

double number = 2.4;
System.out.println( "before rounding: " + number ); 

number = Math.round(number);
System.out.println( "after rounding: " + number );

before rounding: 2.8
after rounding: 3.0
before rounding: 2.4
after rounding: 2.0

Wrapper Classes

Why wrap int, double, etc?
way to use primitive data types as objects

Primitive Data Type	Wrapper Class
byte	Byte
short	Short
int	Integer
long	Long
float	Float
double	Double
boolean	Boolean
char	Character

Primitive type and corresponding wrapper class
Wrapper classes are used to convert any data type into an object. The primitive data types are not objects; they do not belong to any class; they are defined in the language itself. Sometimes, it is required to convert data types into objects in Java language.

public class wrappers
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
{}}

// int x = 10;
// System.out.println(x.toString()); ------ doesn't work because x is a primitive data type, not a modifiable object
Integer x = new Integer(10);
//to get around this, you define an integer wrapper class
System.out.println(x.toString());
//x is now an object, not a primitive data type


Integer x = new Integer(15);

10

Concatenation

Appendage of Strings

//ex
String firstName = "John ";
String lastName = "Doe";
System.out.println(firstName.concat(lastName));

John Doe

class concatenation
{
    public static void main(String arg[])
    {
        }
}

String str1 = "hello", str2 = " to you", str3 = " too";
str1 = str1 + str2 + str3; // LINE A
System.out.println(str1);
//line a is '+' operator

str2 = str2.concat(str3);
System.out.println(str2); //line B
//concat() method

boolean folklore = true;
boolean evermore = false;
System.out.println("Folklore is a great album." + "\nThis statement is " + folklore); // LINE C
System.out.println("Folklore is a bad album." + "\nThis statement is " + evermore);
//concatenation of a boolean to a string

hello to you too
 to you too
Folklore is a great album.
This statement is true
Folklore is a bad album.
This statement is false

Math Classes (Random Usage)

Methods to perform math tasks on numbers
random() returns a random number between 0 (inclusive) and 1
Public static double random

import java.lang.Math;
 
//java.lang.Math.random()
class random {
 
    // driver code
    public static void main(String args[])
    {
    }
}
double rand = Math.random();
System.out.println("Random Number:" + rand);

Random Number:0.13816735220066045

Compound Boolean Expressions

Test two things to be true before body of conditional is executed
'&&' used as logical operator and to join 2 booleans

//ex
//want to play video games, but parents only let you if you've finished your homework and taken a shower

public class compoundBooleans
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
   {
     boolean didHomework = true;
     boolean tookShower = false;
     if (tookShower && didHomework)
     {
         System.out.println("You can play");
     }
     else
     {
         System.out.println("No, you can't play");
     }
   }
}

Truth Tables and De Morgan's Law

Simplification of booleans through truth tables
Organized way to define a boolean function
De Morgan's law: De Morgan's first law states that the complement of the union of two sets A and B is equal to the intersection of the complement of the sets A and B.

//demorgans law
//has to be back home before 10, and has to walk the dog 

public class demorgans
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
   {
     boolean backby10 = true;
     boolean walkedDog = false;
     if (!(backby10 && walkedDog))
     //means not A OR not B
     {
         System.out.println("True. You were back by 10 but didn't walk the dog");
     }
     else
     {
         System.out.println("You were back in time and walked the dog");
     }}}

public class demorgans
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
   {
     boolean backby10 = true;
     boolean walkedDog = false;

    if (!(backby10 || walkedDog))
//means not A AND not B
{ 
System.out.println("False. You were back by 10 but didn't walk the dog");
}
else
{
 System.out.println("You were back in time and walked the dog");


}
}
}

Comparing Numbers

use == or compareTo() method

//comparing numbers
public class wrappers
{
   public static void main(String[] args){}
}

    int x = 10;
    int y = 14;

    if(x==(y)) {
        System.out.println("Both x and y are equal");
    }
    else
        System.out.println("x and y are not equal");

x and y are not equal

public class wrappers
{
   public static void main(String[] args){}
}

// int x = 10;
// System.out.println(x.toString()); ------ doesn't work because x is a primitive data type, not a modifiable object
Integer x = new Integer(10);
//to get around this, you define an integer wrapper class
System.out.println(x.compareTo(15));
//x is now an object, not a primitive data type
System.out.println(x.compareTo(5));
//-1 is b/c 10 is less than 15
//1 is because 5 is less than 10

-1
1

int xy = 83;
int yz = 20;

int compare = Integer.compare(xy, yz);

if(compare>0) {
    System.out.println("xy is greater than yz");
}
else if (compare<0){
    System.out.println("xy is less than yz");
}
else
     System.out.println("xy and yz are equal");

xy is greater than yz

Comparing Strings

Use .equals() or ==
equals() used to check if 2 strings contain the same content

class comparingStrings{ 

    public static void main(String args[]){  
    }  
   }  
   String s1="hello";  
   String s2="goodbye";  
   String s3=new String("hello");  
   String s4="you're a good friend"; 
   String s5="goodbye";

   if (s2 == s5){
    System.out.println("true");
   }
   System.out.println(s1.equals(s2));  
   System.out.println(s1.equals(s3));  
   System.out.println(s1.equals(s4));

true
false
true
false

Comparing Objects

use .equals() or ==
checks if an object is null, or if attributes are the same

class Food {
    //attributes
    String cuisine;
    String name;
    int mealsConsumed;


    //constructor
    Food(String cuisine, String name, int mealsConsumed)
    {
        this.cuisine = cuisine;
        this.name = name;
        this.mealsConsumed = mealsConsumed;
    }
}

//objects
Food Dal1 = new Food("Indian", "Mango Dal", 10);
Food Dal2 = new Food("Indian", "Moong Dal", 4);

System.out.println("Dal1 = Dal2 is " + Dal1.equals(Dal2));

Dal1 = Dal2 is false

For, While, Nested Loops

while loop

executed while something is happening
iterates over elements
can be infinite if boolean is always true

do-while loop

condition is checked after executed statements

for loop

certain amt of loops thru code block

nested loop

loop w/in loop

for-each loop

traverses an array in java

While Loop

int x = 10;

while (i<10) {
    System.out.println(i);

    i++;
}

public class arrays
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
   {
   }}
   public static void main(String[] args) {
    int[] numbers = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10};
    int i = 0;
    while (i < numbers.length) {
        System.out.println(numbers[i]);
        i++;

    }}

Do-While Loop

int i = 0;
do {
  System.out.println(i);
  i++;
}
while (i < 5);

For/For-Each Loop

int i = 0;
do {
  System.out.println(i);
  i++;
}
while (i < 5);

//for-each loop
int arr[]={10,20,30,40,50};  
for(int j:arr){  
  System.out.println(j);  
}

10
20
30
40
50

Writing Classes

blueprint for objects
has constructors, methods, variables, attributes
objects are instances of a class
attributes are components
methods are object actions
public/private -- accessible/not accessible outside the class
constructors initialize instance variables when objects are created
Naming Conventions: CamelCase (simple, descriptive, straightforward)

class Food {
    //attributes
    private String cuisine;
    private String name;
    private int mealsConsumed;
//instance variables

    //constructor
    Food(String cuisine, String name, int mealsConsumed)
    {
        this.cuisine = cuisine;
        this.name = name;
        this.mealsConsumed = mealsConsumed;
    }
    public String getName(){
        return name;
    }
}

public class Foodmain {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        Food newFood = new Food("Indian", "Idli", 20);
        System.out.println(newFood.getName());
        
    }
}
Foodmain.main(null)

Idli

import java.util.Scanner; //allows scanners to be in program

public class averages {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    
}}
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in); //creates a scanner

System.out.print("Input 1st number: "); //asks user for input
int num1 = in.nextInt(); //saves number and goes to next int
System.out.println(num1);
System.out.print("Input 2nd number: "); //same as above
int num2 = in.nextInt();
System.out.println(num2);
System.out.println("The average of those numbers are " + (num1 + num2)/(2));

//prints out
//num you want to divide is however many numbers you want to average out

averages.main(null)

Input 1st number: 3
Input 2nd number: 5
The average of those numbers are 4

Constructors

no return b/c not directly called
called for object creation
initialize and set values for objects

public class Main {//main class
    int modelYear;
    String modelName;//attributes
  
    public Main(int year, String name) {//constructor
      modelYear = year;
      modelName = name;
    }
  
    public static void main(String[] args) {
      Main myCar = new Main(1969, "Mustang");//objects
      System.out.println(myCar.modelYear + " " + myCar.modelName);
    }
  }
  
// Outputs 1969 Mustang
Main.main(null);

1969 Mustang

Accessor & Mutator methods

accessor methods: return private variable values

access to instance variables
don't take parameters
return type matches type of variable they're accessing
getters

mutator methods: called setters

set the value
void return type; no return value

//basic example
public class Person {
    private String name; // private = restricted access
  
    // Getter
    public String getName() {
      return name;
    }
  
    // Setter
    public void setName(String newName) {
      this.name = newName;
    }
  }

Static/Class Variables

static variables: common property of all objects; not unique

gets memory only once
makes memory efficient

import java.util.Scanner;

public class Main {
    //static variables
  private static String[] words = {"words", "to", "put", "in"};
  private static String word = words[(int) (Math.random() * words.length)];
  private static String asterisk = new String(new char[word.length()]).replace("\0","*");
  private static int count = 0;
  
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
    
    //create a while loop when count is less than 7 and
    //when asterisk contains *
    while (count < 7 && asterisk.contains("*")) {
      //print guess any letter in the word
      //print asterisk
      //take in guess and scan it in (string guess and take in scan)
      //hang(guess)
      System.out.println("Guess any letter in the word");
      System.out.println(asterisk);
      String guess = sc.next();
      hang(guess);
    }
    sc.close();

}}

Public, Private, Protected; Access Modifiers

private; only accessed within class
protected; within/outside package, accessible only through child class
public - open access

//private

import java.util.*; //import scanner
public class Main {
  private static String reverse_str_order(String input_sentence) { //
    if (input_sentence == null) {
      throw new IllegalArgumentException("Null"); //no empty strings
    }
    StringBuilder stringBuilder = new StringBuilder();
    String[] words = input_sentence.split(" ");
    for (int i = words.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
      stringBuilder.append(words[i]); //place words in order
      if (i != 0) { //keep going until no more words are left
        stringBuilder.append(" ");
      }
    }
    return stringBuilder.toString();
  }
}
public static void main(String[] args) { //prepares for scanning
  Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
  System.out.print("Input string: "); //asks for user input
  String input = scanner.nextLine(); //takes in next line
  System.out.println("\nResult: " + reverse_str_word(input));
}

//public

import java.util.*; //import scanner
public class Main {
  public static String reverse_str_order(String input_sentence) { //
    if (input_sentence == null) {
      throw new IllegalArgumentException("Null"); //no empty strings
    }
    StringBuilder stringBuilder = new StringBuilder();
    String[] words = input_sentence.split(" ");
    for (int i = words.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
      stringBuilder.append(words[i]); //place words in order
      if (i != 0) { //keep going until no more words are left
        stringBuilder.append(" ");
      }
    }
    return stringBuilder.toString();
  }
}
public static void main(String[] args) { //prepares for scanning
  Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
  System.out.print("Input string: "); //asks for user input
  String input = scanner.nextLine(); //takes in next line
  System.out.println("\nResult: " + reverse_str_word(input));
}

//protected

import java.util.*; //import scanner
public class Main {
  protected static String reverse_str_order(String input_sentence) { //
    if (input_sentence == null) {
      throw new IllegalArgumentException("Null"); //no empty strings
    }
    StringBuilder stringBuilder = new StringBuilder();
    String[] words = input_sentence.split(" ");
    for (int i = words.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
      stringBuilder.append(words[i]); //place words in order
      if (i != 0) { //keep going until no more words are left
        stringBuilder.append(" ");
      }
    }
    return stringBuilder.toString();
  }
}
public static void main(String[] args) { //prepares for scanning
  Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
  System.out.print("Input string: "); //asks for user input
  String input = scanner.nextLine(); //takes in next line
  System.out.println("\nResult: " + reverse_str_word(input));
}

Static/Class methods

belong to class, not object
accessed through class

public class friends
{
   // instance variables
   private String name;
   private String email;
   private String phoneNumber;

   // Static counter variable
   public static int personCounter = 0;

   // static method to print out counter
   public static void printPersonCounter() {
        System.out.println("Person counter: " + personCounter);
   }

   // constructor
   public friends(String initName, String initEmail, String initPhone)
   {
      name = initName;
      email = initEmail;
      phoneNumber = initPhone;
      personCounter++;
   }

   // toString() method
   public String toString()
   {
     return  name + ": " + email + " " + phoneNumber;
   }

   // main method for testing
   public static void main(String[] args)
   {
      // call the constructor to create a new person
      friends p1 = new friends("Sana", "sana@gmail.com", "123-456-7890");
      friends p2 = new friends("Jean", "jean@gmail.com", "404 899-9955");

      friends.printPersonCounter();
   }
}

//class methods
public class Main {
    static void myMethod() {
      System.out.println("Hello World!");
    }
  }  
//methods declared within a class

this Keyword

current object in method/constructor
eliminates confusion b/w attributes/parameters w/ the same name

//ex
public class Main {
    int x;
  
    // Constructor with a parameter
    public Main(int x) {
      this.x = x;
    }
  //this used to 
    // Call the constructor
    public static void main(String[] args) {
      Main myObj = new Main(5);
      System.out.println("Value of x = " + myObj.x);
    }
  }

main method, tester methods

main method runs main code
tester method tests main code

Inheritance, extends

extends: extends a class, inherits information from another class
subclass; class inherits from another class
superclass; parent class being inherited from

//ex
class school {
    protected String brand = "work";         //  attribute
    public void pencil() {                     // method
      System.out.println("write, write!");
    }
  }
  
  class classwork extends school {
    private String modelName = "google doc";    // attribute
    public static void main(String[] args) {
  
      // Create a new school object
      School mySchool = new School();
  
      // Call the pencil() method (from the school class) on the work object
      mySchool.pencil();
  
      // Display the value of the brand attribute (from the Vehicle class) and the value of the modelName from the Car class
      System.out.println(mySchool.brand + " " + mySchool.modelName);
    }
  }

Subclass constructor, super Keyword

subclass; inheriting class
super: refers to parent objects; calls superclass methods

Overloading a method, same name different parameters

java feature allowing classes to have more than one method that is named the same (but it must have different parameters)
easier to overload one instead of having to define two identically-functioning methods

Overriding a method, same signature of a method

when a subclass has the same method has the parent class
implements a certain aspect of method declared by a parent class

Abstract Class, Abstract Method

is a method that has just the method definition but no actual implementation
can be subclassed, not instantiated

Standard methods: toString(), equals(), hashCode()

toString returns string
hashCode returns hashCode of a string

public class toString
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
{}}

Integer x = new Integer(10);
System.out.println(x.toString());
System.out.println(x.toString(90));

10
90

public class hashCode
{
   public static void main(String[] args)
{}}

String str_New = "yay!";
System.out.println(str_New.hashCode());

3701712

Late binding of object

name of method looked up at runtime
compiler doesn't perform argument checks and leaves it up to runtime

Polymorphism

class has different implementations of a method
same action performed differently

Big O notation for Hash map, Binary Search, Single loop, Nested Loop

language for runtime length
related to efficiency

hashmap: single operation to obtain position of a searched element

O(1) binary search

O(1) eliminates half the elements each time single loop

O(n) The next loop executes N times, if we assume the statement inside the loop is O(1), then the total time for the loop is N*O(1), which equals O(N) also known as linear time nested loop

O(N*N) the first loop may execute N times, but for how many first loop executes, the inner loop executes N times